ESTIMATING WITH ACCURACY

ESTIMATING WITH ACCURACY

ESTIMATING

Before a job is entered into production, the
printer provides the customer with an estimate of job's cost, followed by a contractual agreement known as a QUOTE.

A prospective customer

will want to know the cost of work to be produced for him. In printing industry, goods produced are not normally of a standard nature. For most printing work, however, a standard price list is impracticable due to the variety of work handled. The cost of almost every printed job, therefore, has to be worked out individually in advance, so that a certain profit percentage can be added and the price quoted in the form of an estimate to the customer.

There can be few printers having to quote for work in a competitive market who do not appreciate the need for accurate estimating. To over-estimate may cause the loss of an order, where as to under-estimate will result in financial loss.

Variations in prices quoted by different firms for the same job are often considerable. No two printers have identical plant and equipment or costs, and outputs for similar machines vary from firm to firm. Nevertheless, much variation is due to Inaccurate Estimating.

To make a good estimate, one need not be an expert in arithmetic, but accuracy and orderliness are necessary and speed is desirable. Estimates that take too long to prepare may lose a firm the chance to gain an order.

Careless or indistinct writing and unmethodical setting out of details or calculations greatly increase the risk of error.

Estimating is basically a two step process. 

    1. Is to analyze a job's specifications to determine the best way to produce the printed piece and to determine whether the job should be undertaken.

    2. The second step is to estimate how much it will cost to produce the job. The estimator    assigns cost ton each part of the project, based on standard production times and budgeted hourly cost factors. The estimator also assigns cost to materials and outside purchases and then adds a profit margin to the job.

ESTIMATING SYSTEMS

Many different estimating systems are in use in printing plants throughout the country. Systems based upon Hourly rates, Fixed price list, Industry averages and Universal prices Catalogs may be found.

An estimating system may also include all production costs and must meet the needs of the particular firm.

BUDGETED HOURLY COST METHOD

The budgeted hourly cost method is used in plants where the cost of individual machine operations can be calculated.

A four steps procedure is used to obtain QUOTATIONS for work.

      Find the operation costs of each machine, work station or print operation.

      Determine the amount of each machine time for the particular job.

      Estimate outside purchases.

      Establish the sales prices.

Budgeted hourly costs include the total operating cost for a given production operation for one hour. Hourly costs are prepared by the estimator by totaling the annual expenses for each operation or producing unit. The total annual costs for that unit are then divided by the number of production hours in one year to give the average hourly costs.

Here is a list of major items that the estimator should consider when operating hourly costs.

      Rent

      Utilities

      Real and personal property tax.

      Insurance.

      Depreciation on material/ equipment.

      Maintenance of plant.

      Maintenance of equipment.

      Supplies.

      Administrative expenses.

      Direct factory payroll.

      Indirect factory payroll.

      Payroll taxes and benefits.

Estimating Guidelines

Estimating requires a person who has knowledge about the various production steps, capabilities of printing equipment.

SELECTING OPTIMUM JOB DESIGN

The estimator should always ask the customer about job specification, such as whether the customer really requires a specific size, type of stock, or production element. If a small change in a job specification can reduce production costs, it is the estimator’s responsibility to bring this to the estimator’s responsibility to bring this to the customer’s attention.  

When the estimator prepares a worksheet jobs should be quoted several different ways in order to cost out the most efficient production pattern. Advantages of this are the customers choose a less expensive alternative.

The following are some specific job design factors that should be examined in estimating virtually every job;

      Length of Run.

Ø  Consider increasing or decreasing the required number of copies requested by the customer if this will make a substantial decrease in the customers per unit cost.

Ø  Factors that affect length of Run economies are,

·         Paper carton packing schedule,

·         Make-ready time  and

·         Spoilage costs.

      Question Frills or other expendable items.

Ø  Some jobs include elements that are either unnecessary, arbitrary or prohibitively expensive.

Ø  The estimator should question such items as special wrapping, unnecessary folds, difficult die cutting, non standard ink colors, unusual sizes and overly thin or extra heavy stock for the job. By eliminating these frills you may be able to reduce costs significantly.

      Add extras or other features.

Ø  On some jobs it may be possible to add extras that may add little or no additional price cost but greatly increase the utility of the finished product.

      Gang up the job for press economy.

Ø  The estimator should routinely cost out jobs two-four, or eight- up to take advantage of press sizes.

                    PRODUCT INSPECTION.

Four main jobs of quality control may be;

      New-Product Specification.

      Inspection of materials and production.

      Product investigation and improvement.

      Process investigation and

Inspection may be split into two;

   1. =>Ensuring that the materials, Parts, Components and sub-assemblies which are    bought from outside firms and from other divisions of the same firm, conform to the quality standards which have been laid down in the new product specification.

    2. =>Checking the quality of conformance of the product during manufacture.

2.0 The Organization of Inspection.

      A Centralized or Decentralized-"transfer (power) from Government to Regional Government e.g., Central” Inspection Organization - The concept of quality control entails the employment of an information feedback system for control and for product improvement. -It directly involves job inspection both for materials and for in-process quality control both in Centralized and in Decentralized inspection.

2.1. Centralized Inspection.

This situation is characterized by(characteristics of centralization)

 (a) A direct authority/responsibility relationship of inspection with quality control

 (b) All parts of the quality control system work for the same superior(the same status or        quality).

 (c) The consequent ability of the quality manager to create a self-improving System with inspection providing the greater part of the necessary information.(i.e should have power to design a system which will give improvement to production)

(d) The tactical/skillful advantage of withdrawing/indicate inspection Decision from the overriding (more important than any other consideration) jurisdiction (authority to carry out justice) of the production function.

(e) A greater reliance (confidence/trust in) on well prepared product specifications with a tendency to operate rather strictly to those specifications.

(f) A tendency to stand apart as a staff or advisory body rather than to indulge (allow oneself) in a close association with production.

2.2. Decentralized Inspection.

The following characteristics apply.

(a)           Inspection is closer in sympathy and in speed of action to the particular     production unit or section.

     (b)   There is a much closer association with the needs commitments of the UNIT.

     (c)   Each unit can more easily be given profit responsibility. Inspection will   form part of the team and become more involved, rather than acting as an adviser and looking on from the sidelines.

(d)  In certain circumstances the inspector and the operator can be given a joint authority  for the control and quality of the work they carry out. 

This will entail the need for personal cooperation in attaining both quality and quantity of a product, the ability to inspect work constructively rather than rigidly, and the necessity to shut down a machine when the quality of the work is unsatisfactory.

(e)  There is the danger that Inspectors will be overruled by production staff when outside pressures become heavy. This situation will arise when product specifications are not exact, when the product is behind schedule, and when incentive bonus schemes have not been related to product quality.

The choice of inspection system will be determined by business environment but the primary objectives are to:

      Satisfy their customers.

      Increase the efficiency, speed and profitability of production process.

3.0. Factors influencing the choice of system.

The choice of a system of inspection depends on the ORIGINAL IDEA.

Five facts are important in this situation,

  a) The quality of design originally fixed.

  b) The clarity (clearness) of the production specification.

  c) The importance of quality guarantees in devising bonus system.

  d) The ability of machinery to meet the specifications at the speeds in use.

  e) The ability of inspectors to measure accurately the quality characteristics which are important.

If all these five requirements are satisfied then the major problem confronting the operator and the inspector will have been solved.

The production specification will allow good work to be carried out at speed acceptable to the machinery.

Operators will be rewarded on good quality job otherwise no reward.

N.B: 1. It is quite in order for the operator and the inspector to be working      under the Authority of the same Manager. And for the chief inspector to be made responsible to a member of the production management team. Cooperation within the production team is highly required.

          2. The responsibility of the inspector would extend only as far as the accurate measurement of quality of conformance of the product.

          3. Product Quality and production quality control are two different aspects quality.

4.0. Maintenance of Quality Control/Improvement feedback.

Returning to the four main jobs of quality control outlined at the beginning of this chapter, the information for these jobs will be obtained in each case as follows

(a)          New-Product Specification-from designer, from the customer via marketing and from existing inspection records.

      (b)   Inspection-from existing records.

 (c)  Production Investigation-from existing inspection records past figures and special tests.

       (d) Process Investigation-from existing records, past figures and special designed experiments.

Quality Control information must be communicated effectively and promptly for immediate action in production Quality Control and in accordance with organization production quality control policy.

5.0. Why Inspect:

Common types of inspection:

Ø  Raw material Inspection.

Ø  Bought-in parts and components inspection(vilivyonunuliwa na kuletwa).

Ø  Made-in parts and components inspection.(vilivyotengenezwa humohumo ndani)

Ø  Stage-by-stage inspection during production processes.

Ø  Final inspection and testing.

Ø  Commissioning(an instruction or command,action, task) and field trials (examination of evidence in Law Court, by Judge)

Henceforth, the aims of Inspection are as follows:

(a)  To accept or reject an article or product.

(b)  To control the process making the product.

(c)   To improve the general performance and quality standard of the process.

     

6.0. Methodology of Inspection.(a system of methods in inspection)

There are two methods of

This may use HUMAN INSPECTION METHUOD or AUTOMATIC INSPECTION METHOD. Limitations on Human capabilities in terms of scope and physical limitations give way to automatic inspection.

1. Advantages of Automatic Inspection.

(i)        More accurate when measurement is possible.

(ii)      More reliable.

(iii) More reproducible over a period of Time.

(iv)  Not susceptible to fatigue.

(v)                More suitable for continuous inspection and recording during     processing.

2. Advantages of Human Inspection.

(a)        Assessment of large numbers and varieties of fault.

(b)              The use of intelligence and discretion (quality of being, good judgment) is classifying defects.

(c)         The consequential assessment of faults in relation to each other.

(d)  Inspection where standards are subjective and difficult to define.

In fact, while automatic inspection equipment is becoming very popular, the human inspector tends to move away from simple repetitive tasks, and to concentrate more and more on the highly complicated tasks, demanding initiative and technical knowledge.

7.0. The Costs of Quality.

  Quality costs can be classified into three major classes

          (1)      Failure Costs: Money lost through products which for one reason   or another do not meet the specification. They are divided into internal and external failure costs – refer to waste in printing works.

 (2)     Appraisal Costs: Money spent on inspecting products at all stages of manufacture to determine whether or not they are defective.

            (3)    Prevention Costs: Money spent on ensuring that defects do not occur in the first place.

In order to investigate quality costs, and find ways of improving quality conformance it is important to list the type of cost which fit into these headings.

            E.g. Defectives in the Mill

Ø  Low grade pulp

Ø  Waste in preparation plant

Ø  Machine efficiency losses

 Defectives in the Field

Ø  Paper returned by customers

Ø  Sub-standard paper, allowances to customers

Ø  Consequential loss claims

 Inspection Costs    

Ø  Pulp inspection

Ø  Chemicals and other supplies inspection (excluding fuel)

Ø  Stock testing

Ø  Paper testing at Machine

Ø  Paper testing before dispatch

Ø  Special inspection facilities

If we intend to reduce quality costs we have to find the CAUSES for remedial steps.

PAPER AND BOARD

Wherever possible the details of paper should be completed before considering other costs. Paper here refers to all varieties of stock used for printing and processing. It includes:

Ø  All boards

Ø  Cut cards

Ø  Envelops and

Ø  Tags

Normally issued by the white paper warehouse for production department, but does not include such materials as straw-boards and imitation book covering used in the binding and finishing process.

 Sample Books – Sets of paper suppliers sample books should be kept for reference and comparison purposes. In order to determine the stock sizes and weights available from mills and merchants, an up-to-date paper directory containing names and addresses of mill agents and stockiest lists of watermarks and trade names, will be found useful in tracing the source of supply.

 System of keeping sample – to avoid sending frequently to the paper warehouse for samples of stock papers to accompany quotations, the estimating equipment should be equipped with a cabinet containing folded sheets of all stock lines from which samples can be drawn.

      Care should be taken to keep-up to date samples as shaded and finishes are subject to change.

Useful tools for the Estimator

1. Micrometers – There are two models in general use:

          i.            the heavy desk model and

        ii.            the pocket variety.

 They are used for determining the thickness of a piece of paper or board in microns.

2.Paper weighing scale – there are two models of scales:

1. Sheet scale, and
2. Template scale.

 For the sheet scales, a sheet is weighed in weight per ream or g/m^2.  For the template model, a cutting of paper the size of the template is weighed. The weight per ream in demy is then given. Other model of template is g/m².

3.Paper weight conversion slide rule: A slide rule is used for converting g/m²  to kg/1000          sheets.

4.Calculator – For quick computations.

Factors affecting the choice of paper and working size

      The decision regarding the paper to be used rests on

                                                          i.            suitability of quality and substances which will be related to the printing process to be used, and

                                                        ii.            economy of size.

      Customer specification.

      The size of paper needs special considerations where by size has a bearing on the

·         the scheme of Imposition

·         the method of binding

·         the number of forms to be printed

·         the possibility of working the job more than one up

Classification of paper.

Paper can be classified into:

(i)                                     Quality – The trade names given to various papers and boards can be very misleading,  example,

·         Art paper – used to mean a brush coated paper. Nowadays the term is used and can refer to anything from a top quality brush coated esparto art to a wood free machine coated printing                                  .

·         Cream wove paper – Usually white not cream.

                             Quality of the paper should be submitted to the customer.

(ii)                                               Paper   size – The estimator should be familiar with the British Standard (BS) for paper and   board.

(iii)                                     International “A” paper size – International paper size originally based on the DIN standard are of a definite trimmed size, whereas, under the older British paper system, the finished sizes vary considerably. The basis of international series of paper sizes is a rectangle having an area of one square metre, the sides of which are the proportion 1:√2. The effect of this arrangement is that if the shorter size is doubled or the longer size halved, i.e. if the area of the sheet is doubled or halved, the shorter side and the longer side of the new sheet are still in the proportion 1:√2.

The description of the “A” series consists of capital A followed by a figure e.g. A1.  The higher the figure which follows the letter, the greater is the number of subdivisions and the smaller the sheet. The basic size has the description A0, half of A0 is A1, and half A1 is A2… etc.

Where larger dimensions are required the A is preceded by a figure therefore 2A means the size of A0, and 4A means four times the size of A0.

Standard Trimmed Sizes..

   Designations     Dimensions (mm)

     2A                                          1189 X 1682  

      A0                                         841 X 1189

      A1                                          594 X 841

      A2                                         420 X 594

      A3                                         297 X 420

      A4                                          210 X 297

      A5                                          148 X 210

      A6                                         105 X 148

To meet the needs to produce these sizes it has been agreed to adopt a PRIMARY RANGE of UNTRIMMED stock Sizes of paper in sheet.

                                            Dimensions (mm)

      RA0                                    860 x 1220

      RA1                                    610 x 860

      RA2                                    430 x 610

The letter R indicates that this is the size in stock from which the relevant size A can be produced.

These sizes are appropriate for a large amount of general work, but where bleed and extra trims have to be catered for the ISO committee has prepared a recommendation for a supplementary range.

       Designation                                Dimensions (mm)

             SRA0                                           900 X 1280

             SRA1                                           640 X 900

             SRA2                                           450 X 640

The letters SR indicates that this is the stock size in the supplementary Range.

The recommended stock sizes for printing Boards are SRA1, SRA2

N.B;  Other Local Standards do exist and are still in use.

THE B SERIES PAPERS.

 The B – Series listed below is intended primarily for Poster, Wall Charts and similar items where the difference in size of the larger sheets in the A – Series represents too large a jump.

             Designation                    Dimensions (mm)

                   4B                                    2000 X 2828

                   2B                                    1414 X 2000

                   B0                                    1000 X 1414

                   B1                                       707 X 1000     

                   B2                                       500 X 707

                   B3                                       353 X 500

                   B4                                       250 X 353

                   B5                                       176 X 250

The C – Series is for envelopes or Folders suitable for enclosing Stationeries in the A Size. The more generally used sizes are:-

            Designations                     Dimensions (mm)

                 C4                                          229 X 24

                 C5                                          162 X 229 

                C6                                           114 X 162

                 DL                                         110 X 220

Substance; Substance of papers is expressed in grams per square meter (g/m2)

 The recommended substances for stock sizes of printing and writing papers will be based on the R20/R40 range.

This scale was developed and named after a French Engineer Chares Renard                                              

R20 series implies    ²⁰√10 (particular root of 10)

R40 series implies   ⁴⁰√10

                      Each step increases by approximately 12% over the proceeding step i.e. is multiplied by 1.12 and rounded off.

For R series we have R10, R20, R30, R40 etc. From this standard we can calculate the weight of paper in Kgm per 1000 sheets based on substance given in 100gm/m²as follows.

Example;

Double medium (584 x 914) mm Substance 100gm/m

 (584 x 914) m²   x   (100) gm/m²    x   1000 sheets

(1000 x 1000) m² x (1000) gm/m²                                              = 53.4 Kgm

Paper are ordered in terms of weight e.g. 1 ton of Double medium paper (584 x 914) mm

 Caliper: For the purpose of comparing patterns and samples it is sometimes necessary to ascertain

 The weight of papers and boards

The most accurate method of determining the weight of a sample is to weigh a sample on a PAPER WEIGHING SCALE:  Caliper here refers to the paper thickness, but it Is not an indicator of paper of paper weight.

The Size of Paper Required:

Paper Size and desired quality should be considered in Estimation. When a certain size is essential for economical working, it is advisable to base the Estimate on the nearest Standard Size paper which permits the most Economical Scheme to be used.

Considerations when selecting paper size

·         Number of printed pages in the type form.

·         Allowances for trimming, bleeds, gripper.

·         Lock – up between blocks.

Amount of gripper space will vary with different types of machines and operations of printing. Trimming should be taken into consideration in the whole process such as;

·         Before printing – trimming is important in some machines with non standard sizes.

·         Lamination and Varnishing.

Allowances

(a)   Trim: An allowance for trim of 3 mm should be made on all edges for single leaf work, and on head, for edge and tail and bound work various machines and printing operations require various amounts of Trim

  E.g. Letterpress - 6mm             

        Offset Lithography – 6mm

  A special allowance possibly up to 12mm may be necessary for some subsequent operation such as Graining, Varnishing, Acetate, and Lamination and automatically fed binding machines.

         (b)  Bars: Especially in letterpress. For small forms and labels special care should be taken in making  the proper allowances to ensure the maximum number are printed in one sheet.

(c)     Register and Grain Direction: The direction of the grain of the paper is very important in multi- colour register work. To keep stretch to minimum it is advisable to print with the long grain parallel to the impression cylinder. Heavy papers and boards can be printed with the grain along the impression cylinder so that they lend themselves to bend round the cylinder.

(d)  Allowances for spoilage and overs;

       In estimation overs must be added to the best quantity of paper needed to allow for proofs, spoilage and the house files. Further quantity will depend upon

Ø  The number of colours or workings.

Ø  Class of work

Ø  Closeness of Register

Ø  Kind of paper and machines

Ø  Length of run

It is important to make additional allowances for any binding and outwork processes.

See the tables below for the suggested paper wastage for letterpress and Web-fed offset.

SUGGESTED PERCENTAGE SCALE FOR CALCULATING PAPER WASTAGE FOR LETTERPRESS.

	Common work(low quality print)		Medium work(to get good quality)		Very fine or close register work(i.e. colours)
Number of sheets	First colour (%)	Each subsequent colour(%)	First colour (%)	Each subsequent colour(%)	First colour (%)	Each subsequence colour(%)
100 or less	12¹/2	5	15	7¹/2	20	10
250	6	3	7	5	8	6
500	4	2 ¹/2	5	3	6	4
1,000	3	2	4	2¹/2	5	3
5,000	2¹/2	1¹/2	3	2	3¹/2	2¹/2
10,000	2	1¹/2	2¹/2	2	3	2¹/2
25,000	1¹/2	1¹/2	2	1¹/2	2¹/2	2
50,000	1¹/2	1	2	1¹/2	2¹/2	2
100,000	1	1	1¹/2	1¹/2	2	2

These works can be grouped according to qulity shown above depending on how much a printer pays attention to the job.

Notes;

Quantities less than 100 to have same number as 100

Add for offset litho, percent up to 10,000, ¹/2 percent over.

Add 1 percent extra each for perforating, numbering, die-stamping, e.t.c

For varnishing allow an extra 1¹/4 percent and showcard work an extra 3¹/2 percent for mounting.  

For cloth-bound work allow extra 1 percent overs.

SUGGESTED PERCENTAGE SCALE FOR CALCULATING PAPER WASTAGE FOR                                                    WEB-FED OFFSET CONSTANT WASTE

	Wrapper  .89 Core          .61 Damage  1.47	Percentage of Total stock 3
Running	Over 100,000 impressions	9
Waste	Over 50,000 impressions	10
Including	Over 25,000 impressions	12
Original	Over 10,000 impressions	14
make-ready	10,000 impressions or less	17

                  Additional

                (The basic running waste allowance                       for 2 webs                                  5

                covers for average weight of                                   for 3 or 4 colours                       1

                uncoated paper printing one                                   for 2 folders                                .5

                web with two colors and delivering                     for pasting                                   1

                one unpasted signature in a single                         for coated stock                         6          

       folder. These additions must                                                                                                              otherwise be made)

(e)   Special making:                                                                                                                                                            The purpose of special making is to obtain a particular combination of weight, quality and size, as well as the greatest number of copies without off cuts. Special making are generally obtainable in the required quality, shade and finish, size and weight. The minimum quantity for a making is usually not less than one TONNE for ordinary papers.

(f)      Materials handling Expenses:                                                                                                                                     In addition to the estimated cost of the paper for the job, allowance must be made to recover the cost of maintenance of:

·         paper warehouse

·         storekeeper’s Wages 

·         packers Wages

·         packing materials

·         Transport

 These expenses are recovered on estimates by the application of an ascertained rate per kg of paper involved. This addition should also be made to paper supplied by the customer. Special packing and transport are not covered by this expense and should be added as further cost COST to the job.

(g)    Calculating the number obtainable out of a sheet: -                                                                                              This is important to consider when working with odd sizes. The objective is to minimize wastage.

(h)   Working Out paper Cost;

Paper and board prices falls into six categories depending on weight i.e.

·         Smalls (under 50 kgm)

·         50 – 200 kgm

·         200 – 500 kgm

·         1000 kgm(ex. Merchant)

·         1000kgm (ex. Mill)

Boards are on the same basis although they tend to be shown as per 100 boards.

Example of an Estimate

Calculate the cost, stock size and quantity of paper required for 10,000 copies of an 8- page booklet, trimmed size 228 x 177 mm, to be printed in two colours, closer register as one 8-page work and turn. The paper is substance of 85gm/m² at 22 prices per kg.

SCHEDULING, LOADING AND PROJECT PLANNING

Within an organization, scheduling pertains to establish the timing of the use of specific resources of that Organization. It relates to the use of equipment, facilities and human activities. Scheduling occurs in every organization, regardless of the nature of its activities.

In printing industries, production Managers must develop schedules for workers, equipment, purchases and maintenance.

Generally, the objectives of scheduling achieve trade-offs among conflicting goals, which includes efficient utilization of staff, equipment, and facilities and minimization of Customer waiting time inventories and process times.

Scheduling can either help or hinder operation strategy. Management should not over look the important role that Scheduling plays in the success of an organization.

The scheduling process aims at producing a schedule. A schedule is a list which shows a systematic implementation of a scheme which may be

·         production scheme

·         Machine or equipment utilization scheme

·         Working shifts scheme

·         Print production scheme.

Each printing operation needs to be broken down into its constituent Jobs and Operations. Then it is possible to load each job and operation, in correct sequence, on the various machines.

Schedules are always arranged in order of Priority, so determining when the work is to be done.

Schedule always originates from the sale department. Sales clerks often run a master programme or schedule, from which they determine the forward commitment of the factory/printing shop.

In continuous production this is the straight-forward operation, involving:

·         A chart for each machine, usually large machines.

·         A list of output capacity for each product which can be produced on that machine.

In batch and jobbing work the forward commitments are more difficult to determine.

2. PRINCIPLES OF SCHEDULING.

       The aims of scheduling are simply to arrange the work of the production unit in such a way that

(a)   All orders are delivered on time

(b)  Orders are completed at minimum total cost

Following from this it is possible to identify principles of scheduling which apply to all cases.

·         Operations should be of short duration

·         Different operations should have approximately the same duration

·         All machine groups, or departments, should have an even load

·         As far as possible, work-centre should be employed in the same sequence.

These principles describe accurately many forms of continuous production. The continuous or flow production unit gives higher utilization of assets.

3. AIMS OF LOADING.

There a number of aims of loading, which may be identified, are the following.

·         To reduce material waiting Time

·         To reduce set-up time

·         To reduce operator and machine idle time

·         To give information for delivery estimates

·         To produce an even plant load from new schedule

·         To balance labour, plant capacity and work load

·         To spotlight over and under-utilized plant and machinery.

These aims are often complementary.

4. SCHEDULING PROBLEM.

The problem of scheduling can often be quite intractable, particularly in the jobbing shop, where it may be extremely difficult to achieve many of the aims of loading given above.

The problem is made up of:

(a)   A number of machines

(b)  A number of jobs

(c)   Each job has a sequence of operations.

(d)  Each operation has a given time.

                 With a number of machines scheduling problem becomes more complex.

       4.1 SCHEDULING RULES.

       Scheduling is a queuing problem which involves describing the position of each job in the queue and    the priority given to each job. Some of the rules include the following;

(a)   Each job joins the end of the queue

(b)  The job with the longest operation time always goes first

(c)   The job with the shortest operation time always goes first

(d)  The job with the highest value goes first

(e)   Last in, first out (LIFO)

(f)    Rank according to earliest delivery date

(g)   Rank according to shortest total job time i.e. the sum of the individual operation times.

The usefulness of scheduling rules lies in the discipline they force on the planning staff, rather than on their ability to provide Optimality.

The scheduling situation is dynamic, and hence one rarely suffices for all situations.

N.B:  Scheduling and loading deal with the sequence of performing jobs. This must be carried out in   relation to the capacity of the plant one of the aims of loading is to balance loads against the available capacity of the machines in order to bring to light any badly overloaded or under loaded machinery. Every job is loaded and off-loaded in the same units, with the date of loading and unloading. Each job has its standard time written besides it, and the total of these standard times may then be compared with actual running times.

          

TYPES OF PRODUCTION PLANNING

1. Batch Working. This type of manufacture is generally considered to be among the most difficult    for good Production Planning and control. The problems are brought  about by the complicated route ring which can take place within the factory as batches of work move around from shop to shop.

      Batches sometimes become split up.

      There is often a long wait between operations.

      There is usually considerable movement between operations.

      Often there is storage in waiting areas with consequent losses.

      Scrap can be high for a variety of reasons, including those above.

      Machine loading may be a complex operation.

      Documentation must include routes operations layouts, job cards, tickets and progressing documents in order to ensure that the right operations are carried out in the right sequence and that the materials is available.

      Planning, however, has good flexibility incase of breakdowns, with some room for maneuver among the different machine groups.

2. Continuous Production. This is typified by the continuous production of solids or liquids on a large scale, by the line production of components and by the assembly line.

The important Planning factors are as follows;

      The provision and re-stocking of large quantities of raw materials and parts, usually in few varieties. This is a major function in materials management for high output factories.

      A simple product line which has few real varieties of product but in which small changes may easily be carried out some large plants are restricted to a few types of product, all heavily standardized.

      A simple schedule of orders which follow each other through the plant according to a set of simple restriction and scheduling rules.

      The need for documented product dispatch arrangements and a close link between production planning and distribution.

      The lack of planning flexibility in breakdown situations with the possibility of serious delays. The need to re-plan materials, schedules, even after quite short breakdowns.

      When scheduling for stockiest and warehouses the need for very close communication because of the high turnover and vast output.

      The ability to produce vast quantities of products with very little production planning paperwork.

3. Project Planning.

               When a single, large project is being planned the product-planning activity is concerned with    a complicated series of OPERATIONS, which are to be carried only once. Usually there are no pre-arranged Layouts, methods or times and often the product has still to be designed. The problem here is –fold;

        a)   Working out the relationships between all the different operations and activities.

b)      Estimating the durations of activities.

c)       Channeling all materials and other resources to the correct place at the moment of need.

The complexity involved in Project Planning is usually tackled by various efficient planning techniques notably

      ERT (Program Evaluation and Review)

      CPM (Critical Path ANALYSIS) 

 These Project planning techniques have the following features;

      A system of circle of events and arrows fir activities which are drawn to show the different relationships on a diagram.

      A means of estimating the time for each activity.

      The calculation of earliest and latest times for every event.

      The concept of float, either free float, total float or independent float for each activity.

      The identification of the critical  path, which is the longest route through the network, and the shortest overall time for project.

      The re-allocation of resources in order to concentrate on the critical path and reduce the total project time.

      The breakdowns of the project into activities which are large enough to form identifiable cost packages and hence give an idea of their cost importance for re-allocating resources.

Project Planning will

      Considerably reduce total time estimates.

      Analyze the effects and desirability of a crash time or a most economic time.

      Provide a basis for bar-charts and other schedules on which to progress the work.     

PERT and CPM facilitates planning and Coordination of large projects. Gantt chart may also be used.

4. Use of Computers in Production planning.

Computers are very useful in Production planning through the use of appropriate soft wares for planning e.g.  MS-Project and for estimating costs. In big project computers can be used in various aspects of production planning such as in;

      Stores control and accounting and inventorying management.

      Sales fore casting and accounting and credit control.

      Cost accounting.

      Distribution and Warehousing.

      Maintenance planning and control.

ESTIMATING  COMPOSITION

COMPOSITION.

A clear conception of the proposed job should be made including all the copy to be set. Make sure to avoid the pitfalls, which arise when work has to be quoted for without seeing any copy;

Ø Decide broadly the method of working.

Ø Determine the number of pages the copy will make (casting off).

Ø Break the job down into the sequence of direct operation.

Ø Calculate times for each operation and extend at the relation hourly rate.

A bad manuscript may add very considerably to the compositors or lay board operator’s times. Foreign language setting will not take longer to set, but may involve the employment of an outside translator to prepare copy and latter check proofs.

        Classes of work.

Ø Book work--Mainly mechanically set, with uniform make-up and a limited amount of hand-set matter.

Ø Periodicals and magazine; Edition matter mechanically set.

Ø Jobbing; any such work may be hand-set entirely or contain machine cost.

                Two or more colour.

 When work is to be printed in two or more colour, time must be allowed for registration. For jobs with only a few times of types or rules in a second colour, each colour form should be assessed separately, and a little extra added to cover the cost of fitting the form.

 Book work;

The following points must be decided;

Ø Area of type on page.

Ø Size of type for text matter, extras footnotes etc.

Ø Number of pages for preliminary matter.

Ø Extras.

There are three main stages in the preparation of the estimate;

   1) Casting-off the copy to determine the number of pages.

   2) Casting-up to ascertain the amount of mechanical setting and handwork.

   3) Calculating operational times.

Periodicals and Magazine

A systematic approach is particularly important in this field demanding thorough break down of the work involved into the operations element. There are two main sub-division to be considered—editorial matter and advertisements;

     In estimating for a periodical it should be remembered that the simpler the final schedule, the more likely it is to please the publisher.

     Editorial Matter

Ø Determine the page size.

Ø Range of type sizes for editorial matter.

Ø Style of setting of editorial matter, number of column etc.

Ø Extent of display.

Ø Number of color.

Ø Classified advertisement type size, layout etc.

New setting; Assess setting time allowing for corrections, make up proofing and imposition on a page basis.

Complete block; Time should be allowed for main ting pooling a proof possible repair and imposing. Any caption setting should also be included.

Repeat Advertisement;  Depending on the frequency of the periodical, a statement should appear in the schedule as to how long an advertisement will be kept standing before it will be treated again as new setting. Times should be assessed for pulling a proof, making good any batters and imposing.

Jobbing; Jobbing constitutes a large part of print. Until experience has been gained computing time values by comprehensive assessment, a systematic approach should be practiced. Work should be divided into pages or section and their value assessed separately.

Supplementary expenses; The composition times include a normal number of ordinary proofs (actually) up to four in black. If additional proofs are required, the extras time tuber in pulling and the small cost of paper should be included in the estimates.                                                            

 When proofs are such a character that they have to be pulled in the machine, time at the hourly rate of the machine must be estimated.

  

PRODUCTION PLANNING - OVER-VIEW

THE SCOPE AND POSITION OF PRODUCTION-PLANNING

The objective of production planning

The objective of production planning is to satisfy customer delivery dates at minimum overall cost by planning the sequence of production activities.

   This may be broken down into a number of constituent objectives;

Ø  To plan the supply of machines; Parts and components so that they are brought together at the right time in the right work location.   

Ø  To make the most economical use; Plant and equipment by smoothing out production and scheduling to the best machine utility.

Ø  To combine with marketing staff; in fulfilling marketing plan by spot lighting unbalanced production, shortage and sales activity requirements.

Ø  To arrange for the best of labouring; fulfilling the sales order book promises.

Ø  To provide information services; for production management on procedure, manufacturing instruction, routes and other background production    

Ø  To supply up-to-date statements; of the progress of all orders through the factory.

Ø  To plan for provision of adequate finished goods stocks according to marketing needs

Production Control System: The sequence of activities in manufacturing starts with long-range marketing plans, made in accordance with the objective and strategy of the company, and ends with historical accounting of what has been achieved. The steps in this sequence are as follows:

Ø  Long-range planning

Ø  Short-range planning

Ø  Preparation for manufacture(production planning)

Ø  Manufacturing

Ø  Distribution

Ø  Control accounting (feed-back)

The position of production planning: The position in the system depends on the   business. The system may be sophisticated with many interacting sub-system, or very simple, as in the small firm. Where a separate production planning department is organized then it normally concentrates on all production information for a product manufacturing sequence from the sales schedule to invoicing.

Production planning/ sales interface: The sales system is an interacting system with production planning. This means that the interface between the systems should be as fluid as possible. At best they will work as one unit.

THE INIATION OF PRODUCTION

The initial Decision:  In the first instance, production of a few products may be either the launching of a new line by the company itself or the receipt of a contract from a customer, or the acceptance of a tender which has already been prepared and submitted by the company.

In the first case and to a large extent in the third the conception of the new product will result from the combination of:

Ø  Technical and

Ø  Marketing consideration

The marketing function will have investigated the market needs for the product or may even have suggested the idea themselves

The technical and design staff have designed and developed a product to suit that market.

  

LETTERPRESS ORIGINALS AND DUPLICATE PLATES

ORIGINALS: Frequently new blocks have to be supplied by the printers. Estimates of the cost must be given, and usually quotations have to be obtained from block makers. Process engraving covers the making of blocks to be printed by letterpress methods. The two main aspect of process engraving cover line blocks and half - tone blocks. Take every opportunity of checking or scrutinizing invoices received from block makers to eventually come to appreciate the possibilities of process engraving, and to understand the method of applying a price list with its many incidentals and EXTRAS to actual or potential work for which one is required to prepare quotations.

When making an estimate some thought should be given to the suitability of originals for the process for which they are to be used without further retouching or alternations, and whether artwork sibs to scale.

Size required: Block making allows enlargement or reduction of an original as well as reproduction in the same size. Size is understood to mean linear scale, not area, the reduction or traceries, is therefore is in exact proportion to the original.

Calculating the cost of originals; The cost of block top the printer will normally be the net amount of the bookmaker scale charges (be a less the agreed trade discount) plus a % for outwork expenses.

    The first step is to measure the image area each subject if it is irregular in shape, find the smallest rectangle which will contain the subjects.

A common source error, when quoting for new blocks, is the omission of incidental charges. These can be complex and therefore block making should never be quoted for by anyone who does not fully understand the pricing system. It is possible for incidental charges to be equal or higher than the basic price.

Proofing - Extra proofs may have to be allowed for.

Color separation - An extra charge is made for panchromatic negatives in color line and black/white line work.

 BLOCKS SUPPLIED BY CUSTOMER—For half tone block the screen should be known, as this may affect the paper to be used for the job. Frequently blocks must be pierced, stepped for type insertion, or be mounted on metal.

Variation in the quality of work produced from blocks supplied by customers is after covered by a clause in the condition which accompanies the quotation.

When a customer proposes to supply blocks for the printing of three or four color half tone work, or multicolored line work, the estimator should stipulate that a set of progressive proofs or, or block makers color-guides should also be supplied, otherwise preliminary machine proofing may be necessary.

Existing blocks—when estimating for re-print, care should be taken to ensure that stored are in good condition, as otherwise make ready may take longer, or the blocks themselves may have to be replaced.

             HINTS OF THE ESTIMATOR.

When a job involves intricate make up, with many different type faces and blocks it may be more economical it make time blocks of the type matter and mount on metal.

        In preparing a quotation for the customer, a separate price may be quoted for blocks and artwork, or their cost be included in their calculations without separating them from the charge for printing.

FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF DUPLICATES.

*Having decided that some form of duplication desirable either wholly or in part, the next step is to determine the kind of duplicates wanted

*It will be necessary to consider the nature of the job whether it will consist of type matter, blocks or a mixture of both.

*The durability of duplicates plate (or blocks) depends on many factors.

             

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE COST OF DUPLICATE PLATES.

Cost based on size. Find the smallest rectangle which will contain the subject except that the narrow dimension is considered to be not less than 50mm when the long dimension exceeds 600 mm. Price list state basic prices indicating whether mounted or un mounted plates involved.

LETTER PRESS MACHINE WORK

Machining relates to all those operations carried out in the department which are directly chargeable to the job. The way in which a job may be printed depends on the working size of the sheet and the imposition scheme, and will involve working on one side, half sheet work (work in turn), sheet work etc.

Chargeable operations will cover; Make ready and pre-make ready (if this is done by the machine department) output times for running, including provision for special wash-ups, charged at the hourly rate for the particular machine.

Selection of machine;

Whenever possible machines should be used to their fullest capacity. Full information should be available on the capacities of the plant, its current production programme, and the average outputs of the machines on the classes of work for which they are most suited.

Details which must be known (about machine) include;

Ø   The size of bed.

Ø   The largest and smallest sheet handled.

Other considerations determining the choice of machine are;

Ø   The nature of the fame.

Ø   Suitability of inking.

Ø   Hourly cost rates of different machine.

Making ready—the total makes ready time will depend not only on the size of machine and nature of the forme, but also the extent and standard of the pre-make ready.

The information is for reference only and must be related to individual company experiences.

The following operations must take place for each forme on all work other than possibly cheapest quality job;

Ø   Re-dressing cylinder or tympana.

Ø   Loading forme into position.

Ø   Position forme on to paper.

Ø   Leveling impression.

Ø  Prepares machine to run load feeder and set the   gripper.

Ø   Ink-up machine and start run.

Ø   Overseers check and pass for running on.

Ø   Lift job and end of run.

·          Wash-up including duct.

·          Clean machine down.

Mounting plates;

In formes which consists of plates only, such as the yellow, magenta and the cyan of four color process work, the plates can be mounted on to patent metal bases. This work can be done as part of pre-make-ready or in the composing department.

       The times for this work if part of pre-make-ready are as follows;                     

	Up to A2(minutes)	Up to A1(minutes)	Over to A1(minutes)
Local base	20	30	40
Lay plates and initial register 6 minutes per plate with a minimum of	15	15	15

Output;

Output expressed as the number of sheets netted per hour will depend on the quality of work, stock of paper or board and also the condition of the machine. It is useful to complete output records of the different machines within a firm. Running speed must not be accepted as output incidental stoppages are common.

PLANNING AND CONTROL.

The quality and efficiency of every printing operation is affected by the structure of the organization, equipment, policies, planning and systems of control in which it is performed. The environment in which a product is manufactured starts with the plant facilities and work place equipment. It also includes the organizational structure and procedures by means of which funds, people, equipment and materials are obtained and managed for productive purposes.

Organizational controls for the production processes are often categorized as PRODUCTIONCONTROL and QUALITY CONTROL.

Production control consists of the mechanics forms, devices, and specified procedures by which the flow of work is effectively    through its various stages.

Job estimating is an adjunct to production control. Quality control consists of the specifications, devices, and inspection by which quality standards are maintained throughout the entire production process.

PLANT AND WORK PLACE

The subjects of plant design and layout do not arise very often in a given company.

Special attention is given here to the principles of plant layout that are generally applicable to most lithographic plants.

Factors to be considered when choosing a plant location are;

       Proximity to markets when fast service is necessary.

       Availability of adequate transportation facilities for both receiving and sending shipments.

       Availability of potential employees.

       Wage levels.

       Rental costs or land.

       Construction costs.

PLANT LAYOUT

Regarding plant layout, the consideration is whether the planning s for a new building or an existing one. The building should be thought of as part of production machine and a new structure should be built to fit a predesigned layout planned for the best possible production flow.

The first principle of plant layout is to provide for direct product flow with minimum travel from one operation to the next, without backtracking. Material handling, or the movement of product through a printing plant, is estimated to account for 60% of all direct and indirect labor costs.

The second principle of plant layout is separation office and manufacturing function. All pre-press operations are included in the office category. The distinction is based on the needed for cleanliness and quite in office areas versus the large noisy, often high-ceiliorged and heavily trafficked environment of the manufacturing areas.

Office and pre-press areas are designed to promote concentration on particular tasks. The type of environment suited for estimating, accounting, and other traditional office operations has long been understood.

The plate room atmosphere is kept free of anti setoff powder. The creative areas are kept free of noise and work-in-process traffic. The manufacturing areas should also be kept free of unnecessary visits from customers. The two functions might be housed in separate buildings or have a distinct separation within a building, with a long corridor or hallway between them.

Providing for expansion without damaging established layout principles is an important consideration of plant layout.

If the office or prepress and the manufacturing functions have been established in a separated but side-by-side direct flow manner, and space is available for outward expansion of a particular capacity, such as that of a pressroom then such expansion can be made without disrupting the overall pattern already in effect in the printing plant.

 

EQUIPMENT AND WORKPLACE

Policies and procedures for the acquisition, arrangement, and maintenance of equipment play a vital role in effective operations. Equipment addition and replacement policies are part of financial planning. At this point attention is given only to the matters considered in choosing a particular piece of equipment after the decision to add or replace has been made. The first equipment is that the equipment will perform the needed functions adequately.

Adequate should include safety, speed, and quality considerations.

The price of the equipment and the cost of its installation must be evaluated when assessing whether its cost lies within available capital resources. A skill innovatory survey of the work force for estimating the financial allocation necessary not only for outside installers, but also for hiring or training, maintenance and operating personnel for the new equipment is recommended.

Maintenance Management is another aspect of equipment that needs to be planned. In a large plant, there is usually a maintenance department. But even if a plant is not big enough to have a separate maintenance department, it should have an organized maintenance function. In the face of increasing mechanization and complexity, higher production control and delivery schedules and stricter quality requirements, good maintenance control becomes increasingly important. On the theory that it is cheaper to prevent breakdowns than to repair them, the organization of maintenance should be built around Preventive Maintenance.

Preventive Maintenance, which is more commonly associated with the maintenance of machinery, consists of scheduled inspection, cleaning lubrication, and parts adjustment, repair, or replacement. Generally machinery needs frequent inspection while it is new and when it is very old. Other factors that should affect the inspection schedule include the heaviness of use and the value of equipment. A carefully established lubrication schedule for each machine is important. The manufacturer’s instructions should be followed regarding type of lubricant and frequency of lubrication. Use of a lubrication chart for routine lubrication is essential. Special lubrication needs are sometimes discovered during inspections, which also help to uncover part repair or replacement needs.

PEOPLE AND ORGANIZATION.

If one element could be considered most important among the several essential elements in an organization, that element probably would be people and their management.

They include employee recruitment, any training of job incumbents, provision of facilities, compensation, and supervision, evaluation of job performance, motivation and advancement.

Recruitment consists of searching for and attracting qualified applicants and then selecting those most suitable. Prospective employers can provide guidance in curriculum development and make their own organizations more attractive than to prospects by providing informational and cooperative activities with prospect-source organization.

Selection has two aspects;

      Having accurate job descriptions that stress the pertinent characteristics required for good job performance and

      Having procedures for judging pertinent applicant characteristics.

These later procedures include testing, evaluating past performance, and developing effective interviewing techniques.

Even persons who are already trained and experienced in the type of work they will be doing; will need some in-house training concerning the company and its particular equipment and procedures.

Others will need more extensive training. Organization that are not large enough to employ a training director should make sure that new employee instruction is not left to haphazard practices. Management should provide guidelines for training procedures.

  Policies that recognize employee worth and encourage participation through suggestion systems work simplification programs, or quality circles can enhance motivation and employee effectiveness.